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The L-cells in the intestinal epithelium express various nutrient-sensing receptors: Dietary fats are particularly potent GLP-1 secretagogues, activating free fatty acid receptors (such as GPR40 and GPR120) on L-cells Proteins and amino acids stimulate GLP-1 through peptide-sensing mechanisms and calcium-sensing receptors Carbohydrates trigger release via glucose transporters and sweet taste receptors expressed on enteroendocrine cells Dietary fibre , particularly soluble fibre, promotes GLP-1 secretion through fermentation products (short-chain fatty acids) produced by gut microbiota The rate and site of nutrient delivery also influences GLP-1 response

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Rong et al., 2022

Su Y, Zhang B, Sun R, Liu W, Zhu Q, Zhang X, et al

Vitamin B12 Through the Oral Mucosa Vitamin B12 can also be absorbed through the oral and nasal mucosa, which is why it is also available in the form of lozenges, drops/sprays and (very rarely) as nasal spray